Una perspectiva global de las tierras raras
Resumen
Los elementos de tierras raras han sido considerados por diversos países como elementos críticos, debido a su importancia tecnológica que impulsa al mundo moderno, además, aunque las tierras raras pueden encontrarse en la mayor parte del mundo, en la actualidad existe un desabasto a nivel mundial, debido a la cada vez menor cantidad de yacimientos minerales que pueden ser económicamente rentables para su extracción y producción. En este sentido, poco más del 50% de la cantidad de tierras raras que se comercializan a nivel mundial, provienen de China, quien ha creado un monopolio en la producción y exportación de dichos elementos, de igual manera es importante mencionar que aunque ciertos elementos de tierras raras son indispensables para las nuevas tecnologías, sus procesos de extracción generan gases y efluentes peligrosos para el medio ambiente y el ser humano, razón por la cual diversos países han implementado políticas que encarecen el procedimiento de producción de tierras raras, encaminando a buscar alternativas que sean amigables con el ambiente y al mismo tiempo sean económicamente rentables.
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Ali, S. (2014). Social and Environmental Impact of the Rare Earth Industries. Resources, 3, 123-134. doi:10.3390/resources3010123
Andreev, O., Ivanov, V., Gorshkov, A., Miodushevskiy, P., & Andreev, P. (2016). Chemistry and Technology of Samarium Monosulfide. Eurasian Chemico-Technological Journa, 18, 55-65. doi:10.18321/ectj396
Arshi , P., Vahidi, E., & Zhao, F. (2018). Behind the scenes of clean energy – the environmental footprint of rare earth products. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 6(3), 3311-3320. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b03484
Asadollahzadeh, M., Torkaman, R., & Torab Mostaedi, M. (2020). Recovery of gadolinium ions based on supported ionic liquid membrane: parametric optimization via central composite design approach. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. doi:10.1007/s13762-020-02743-8
Asadollahzadeh, M., Torkaman, R., Torab-Mostaedi, M., & Moazami, F. (2020). Estimation of Performance with the Two Truncated Probability Density Functions, Case Study: Using Mixco Column to Extract Samarium and Gadolinium. SEPARATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 1-12. doi:10.1080/01496395.2020.1757713.
Baharom, M., Rahman, M., Latif, A., Wang, P., Arof, H., & Harun, S. (2019). Lutetium oxide film as a passive saturable absorber for generating Q switched fiber laser at 1570 nm wavelength. Optical Fiber Technology, 50, 82-86. doi:10.1016/j.yofte.2019.03.003
Balaram, V. (2019). Rare earth elements: A review of applications, occurrence, exploration, analysis, recycling, and environmental impact. Geoscience Frontiers, 10, 1285-1303. doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2018.12.005
Balaram, V. (2019). Rare earth elements: A review of applications, occurrence, exploration, analysis, recycling, and environmental impact. 10, 1285-1303. doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2018.12.005
Batapola, N., Dushyantha, N., Premasiri, H., Abeysinghe, A., Rohitha, L., Ratnayake, N., . . . Dharmaratne , P. (2020). A comparison of global rare earth element (REE) resources and their mineralogy with REE prospects in Sri Lanka. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 20, 1-15. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2020.104475.
Binnemans, K., Jones, P. T., Müller, T., & Yurramendi, L. (2018). Rare Earths and the Balance Problem: How to Deal with Changing Markets? Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy, 4(1). doi:10.1007/s40831-018-0162-8
Cardoso, C., Almeida, J., Lopes, C., Trindade, T., Vale, C., & Pereira, E. (2019). Recovery of Rare Earth Elements by Carbon-Based Nanomaterials—A Review. Nanomaterials—A Review, 9(6), 814. doi:10.3390/nano9060814
Carmignani, L., Clementi, M., Signorini, C., Motta, G., Nazzani, S., & Palmisano, F. (2019). Safety and feasibility of thullium laser transurethral resection of prostate for the treatment of benign prostatic enlargement in overweight patients. Asian Journal of Urology, 6(3), 270-274. doi:10.1016/j.ajur.2018.05.004
Ciacci, L., Vassura, I., Cao, Z., Liu, G., & Passarini, F. (2019). Recovering the “new twin”: Analysis of secondary neodymium sources and recycling potentials in Europe. Resources, Conservation & Recycling, 142, 143-152. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.11.024
Cobelo-García, A., Filella, M., Croot, P., Frazzoli, C., Du Laing, G., Ospina-Alvarez, N., . . . Zimmermann, S. (2015). COST action TD1407: network on technology-critical elements (NOTICE)—from environmental processes to human health threats. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 15188-15194. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5221-0
Dabhane, H., Ghotekar, S., Tambade, P., & Medhane, V. (2020). Plant mediated green synthesis of lanthanum oxide (La2O3) nanoparticles: A review. Asian Journal of Nanoscience and Materials , 3, 291-299. doi:10.26655/AJNANOMAT.2020.4.3
De Vargas Briao, G., Gurgel da Silva, M., & Adeodato Vieira, M. (2021). Expanded vermiculite as an alternative adsorbent for the dysprosium recovery. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 127, 228-235. doi:10.1016/j.jtice.2021.08.022
Engi, M. (2017). Petrochronology Based on REE-Minerals: Monazite, Allanite, Xenotime, Apatite. Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry, 83, 365-418. doi:10.2138/rmg.2017.83.12
Favot, M., & Massarutto, A. (2019). Rare-earth elements in the circular economy: The case of yttrium. Journal of Environmental Management, 240, 504-510. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.04.002
Favot, M., & Massarutto, A. (2019). Rare-earth elements in the circular economy: The case of yttrium. Journal of Environmental Management, 240, 504-510. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.04.002
Ganguli, R., & Cook, D. (2018). Rare earths: A review of the landscape. MRS Energy & Sustainability, 5, 1-16. doi:10.1557/mre.2018.7
Garside , M. (2022, Marzo 4). Statista. Retrieved Mayo 27, 2022, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/270277/mining-of-rare-earths-by-country/
Hou, W., Liu, H., Wang, H., & Wu, F. (2018). Structure and patterns of the international rare earths trade: A complex network analysis. Resources Policy, 55, 133-142. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2017.11.008
Ji, B., Li , Q., Huang, Q., & Zhang, W. (2021). Enhanced leaching recovery of rare earth elements from a phosphatic waste clay through calcination pretreatment . Journal of Cleaner Production, 319, 128654. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128654
Jowitt, S., Werner, T., Weng, Z., & Mudd, G. (2018). Recycling of the rare earth elements. Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 13, 1-7. doi:10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.02.008
Jusza, A., Lipińska, L., Baran, M., Olszyna, A., Jastrzębska, A., Gil, M., . . . Piramidowicz, R. (2019). Praseodymium doped nanocrystals and nanocomposites for application in white light sources. Optical Materials, 95, 109247. doi:10.1016/j.optmat.2019.109247
Kalantzakos, S. (2020). The Race for Critical Minerals in an Era of Geopolitical Realignments. The International Spectator, 1-16. doi:10.1080/03932729.2020.1786926
Kamenopoulos, S., & Agioutantis, Z. (2019). Geopolitical Risk Assessment of Countries with Rare Earth Element Deposits. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration. doi:10.1007/s42461-019-00158-9
Knudsen,, B. (2019). Laser Fibers for Holmium:YAG Lithotripsy: What Is Important and What Is New. Urologic Clinics, 46(2), 185-191. doi:10.1016/j.ucl.2018.12.004
Kumari, A., Kumar Jha, M., Deo Pathak, D., Chakravarty, S., & Lee, J.-c. (2018). Processes developed for the separation of europium (Eu) from various resources (Eu) from various resources. Separation & Purification Reviews , 1-31. doi:10.1080/15422119.2018.1454959
Li, X.-Y., Ge, J.-P., Chen, W.-Q., & Wang, P. (2019). Scenarios of rare earth elements demand driven by automotive electrification in China: 2018–2030. Resources, Conservation & Recycling, 145, 322-331. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.02.003
Marx, J., Schreiber, A., Zapp, P., & Walachowicz, F. (2018). Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of NdFeB Permanent Magnet Production from Different Rare Earth Deposits. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 6(5), 5858-5867. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b04165
Moon, B., Jin Kim, S., Lee, S., Lee, A., Lee, H., Lee, D., . . . Lee, S.-K. (2019). Rare-Earth-Element-Ytterbium-Substituted Lead-Free Inorganic Perovskite Nanocrystals for Optoelectronic Applications. Advanced Materials, 1901716. doi:10.1002/adma.201901716
Overland, I. (2019). The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths. Energy Research & Social Science, 49, 36-40. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018
Patel, K., Zhang, J., & Ren, S. (2018). Rare-earth-free high energy product manganese based magnetic materials. Nanoscale, 10(25), 11701-11718. doi:10.1039/C8NR01847B
Pillai, P. (2007). Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) in the extraction and processing of rare earths. In I. A. Agency (Ed.), Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM V) (pp. 197-221). Sevilla, España: International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna.
Rajive , G., & Douglas , R. (2018). Rare earths: A review of the landscape. MRS Energy & Sustainability, 5, 1-16. doi:10.1557/mre.2018.7
Ricketts, N. J. (2019). Scandium Solvent Extraction. Data Mining, Light Metals 2019, 1395-1401. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05864-7_174
Schmid, M. (2019). Mitigating supply risks through involvement in rare earth projects: Japan's strategies and what the US can learn. Resources Policy, 63, 101457. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101457
Scirè, S., & Palmisano, L. (2020). Cerium and cerium oxide: A brief introduction. In S. Scirè, & L. Palmisano, Cerium Oxide (CeO2): Synthesis, Properties and Applications (pp. 1-12). doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-815661-2.00001-3
Singh, K., Harish, S., Kristy, A., Shivani, V., J., A., Navaneethan, M., & Shimomura, M. (2018). Erbium doped TiO2 interconnected mesoporous spheres as an efficient visible light catalyst for photocatalytic applications. Applied Surface Science, 449, 755-763. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.01.279
Suwanmanee, U., & Ratthanapra, D. (2019). Life Cycle Assessment of Separation Methods of Cerium Oxide from Monazite Ore . The Italian Association of Chemical Engineering, 74, 907-912. doi: 10.3303/CET1974152
Swain, N., & Mishra, S. (2019). A review on the recovery and separation of rare earths and transition metals from secondary resources. Journal of Cleaner Production, 220, 884-898. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.02.094
Takaya, Y., Yasukawa, K., Kawasaki, T., Fujinaga, K., Ohta, J., Usui, Y., . . . Chang, Q. (2018). The tremendous potential of deep-sea mud as a source of rare-earth elements. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 1-8. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-23948-5
Terada, N., & Mamiya, H. (2021). High-efficiency magnetic refrigeration using holmium. Nature Communications, 12(1212). doi:10.1038/s41467-021-21234-z
Binnemans, K., Jones, P. T., Müller, T., & Yurramendi, L. (2018). Rare Earths and the Balance Problem: How to Deal with Changing Markets? Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy, 4(1). doi:10.1007/s40831-018-0162-8
Engi, M. (2017). Petrochronology Based on REE-Minerals: Monazite, Allanite, Xenotime, Apatite. Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry, 83, 365-418. doi:10.2138/rmg.2017.83.12
Hou, W., Liu, H., Wang, H., & Wu, F. (2018). Structure and patterns of the international rare earths trade: A complex network analysis. Resources Policy, 55, 133-142. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2017.11.008
Kamenopoulos, S., & Agioutantis, Z. (2019). Geopolitical Risk Assessment of Countries with Rare Earth Element Deposits. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration. doi:10.1007/s42461-019-00158-9
Moon, B., Jin Kim, S., Lee, S., Lee, A., Lee, H., Lee, D., . . . Lee, S.-K. (2019). Rare-Earth-Element-Ytterbium-Substituted Lead-Free Inorganic Perovskite Nanocrystals for Optoelectronic Applications. Advanced Materials, 1901716. doi:10.1002/adma.201901716
Overland, I. (2019). The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths. Energy Research & Social Science, 49, 36-40. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018
Terada, N., & Mamiya, H. (2021). High-efficiency magnetic refrigeration using holmium. Nature Communications, 12(1212). doi:10.1038/s41467-021-21234-z
Ali, S. (2014). Social and Environmental Impact of the Rare Earth Industries. Resources, 3, 123-134. doi:10.3390/resources3010123
Andreev, O., Ivanov, V., Gorshkov, A., Miodushevskiy, P., & Andreev, P. (2016). Chemistry and Technology of Samarium Monosulfide. Eurasian Chemico-Technological Journa, 18, 55-65. doi:10.18321/ectj396
Arshi , P., Vahidi, E., & Zhao, F. (2018). Behind the scenes of clean energy – the environmental footprint of rare earth products. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 6(3), 3311-3320. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b03484
Asadollahzadeh, M., Torkaman, R., & Torab Mostaedi, M. (2020). Recovery of gadolinium ions based on supported ionic liquid membrane: parametric optimization via central composite design approach. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. doi:10.1007/s13762-020-02743-8
Asadollahzadeh, M., Torkaman, R., Torab-Mostaedi, M., & Moazami, F. (2020). Estimation of Performance with the Two Truncated Probability Density Functions, Case Study: Using Mixco Column to Extract Samarium and Gadolinium. SEPARATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 1-12. doi:10.1080/01496395.2020.1757713
Baharom, M., Rahman, M., Latif, A., Wang, P., Arof, H., & Harun, S. (2019). Lutetium oxide film as a passive saturable absorber for generating Q switched fiber laser at 1570 nm wavelength. Optical Fiber Technology, 50, 82-86. doi:10.1016/j.yofte.2019.03.003
Balaram, V. (2019). Rare earth elements: A review of applications, occurrence, exploration, analysis, recycling, and environmental impact. Geoscience Frontiers, 10, 1285-1303. doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2018.12.005
Balaram, V. (2019). Rare earth elements: A review of applications, occurrence, exploration, analysis, recycling, and environmental impact. 10, 1285-1303. doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2018.12.005
Batapola, N., Dushyantha, N., Premasiri, H., Abeysinghe, A., Rohitha, L., Ratnayake, N., . . . Dharmaratne , P. (2020). A comparison of global rare earth element (REE) resources and their mineralogy with REE prospects in Sri Lanka. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 20, 1-15. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2020.104475
Cardoso, C., Almeida, J., Lopes, C., Trindade, T., Vale, C., & Pereira, E. (2019). Recovery of Rare Earth Elements by Carbon-Based Nanomaterials—A Review. Nanomaterials—A Review, 9(6), 814. doi:10.3390/nano9060814
Carmignani, L., Clementi, M., Signorini, C., Motta, G., Nazzani, S., & Palmisano, F. (2019). Safety and feasibility of thullium laser transurethral resection of prostate for the treatment of benign prostatic enlargement in overweight patients. Asian Journal of Urology, 6(3), 270-274. doi:10.1016/j.ajur.2018.05.004
Ciacci, L., Vassura, I., Cao, Z., Liu, G., & Passarini, F. (2019). Recovering the “new twin”: Analysis of secondary neodymium sources and recycling potentials in Europe. Resources, Conservation & Recycling, 142, 143-152. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.11.024
Cobelo-García, A., Filella, M., Croot, P., Frazzoli, C., Du Laing, G., Ospina-Alvarez, N., . . . Zimmermann, S. (2015). COST action TD1407: network on technology-critical elements (NOTICE)—from environmental processes to human health threats. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 15188-15194. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5221-0
Dabhane, H., Ghotekar, S., Tambade, P., & Medhane, V. (2020). Plant mediated green synthesis of lanthanum oxide (La2O3) nanoparticles: A review. Asian Journal of Nanoscience and Materials , 3, 291-299. doi:10.26655/AJNANOMAT.2020.4.3
de Vargas Briao, G., Gurgel da Silva, M., & Adeodato Vieira, M. (2021). Expanded vermiculite as an alternative adsorbent for the dysprosium recovery. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 127, 228-235. doi:10.1016/j.jtice.2021.08.022
Favot, M., & Massarutto, A. (2019). Rare-earth elements in the circular economy: The case of yttrium. Journal of Environmental Management, 240, 504-510. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.04.002
Favot, M., & Massarutto, A. (2019). Rare-earth elements in the circular economy: The case of yttrium. Journal of Environmental Management, 240, 504-510. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.04.002
Ganguli, R., & Cook, D. (2018). Rare earths: A review of the landscape. MRS Energy & Sustainability, 5, 1-16. doi:10.1557/mre.2018.7
Garside , M. (2022, Marzo 4). Statista. Retrieved Mayo 27, 2022, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/270277/mining-of-rare-earths-by-country/
Ji, B., Li , Q., Huang, Q., & Zhang, W. (2021). Enhanced leaching recovery of rare earth elements from a phosphatic waste clay through calcination pretreatment . Journal of Cleaner Production, 319, 128654. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128654
Jowitt, S., Werner, T., Weng, Z., & Mudd, G. (2018). Recycling of the rare earth elements. Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 13, 1-7. doi:10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.02.008
Jusza, A., Lipińska, L., Baran, M., Olszyna, A., Jastrzębska, A., Gil, M., . . . Piramidowicz, R. (2019). Praseodymium doped nanocrystals and nanocomposites for application in white light sources. Optical Materials, 95, 109247. doi:10.1016/j.optmat.2019.109247
Kalantzakos, S. (2020). The Race for Critical Minerals in an Era of Geopolitical Realignments. The International Spectator, 1-16. doi:10.1080/03932729.2020.1786926
Knudsen,, B. (2019). Laser Fibers for Holmium:YAG Lithotripsy: What Is Important and What Is New. Urologic Clinics, 46(2), 185-191. doi:10.1016/j.ucl.2018.12.004
Kumari, A., Kumar Jha, M., Deo Pathak, D., Chakravarty, S., & Lee, J.-c. (2018). Processes developed for the separation of europium (Eu) from various resources (Eu) from various resources. Separation & Purification Reviews , 1-31. doi:10.1080/15422119.2018.1454959
Li, X.-Y., Ge, J.-P., Chen, W.-Q., & Wang, P. (2019). Scenarios of rare earth elements demand driven by automotive electrification in China: 2018–2030. Resources, Conservation & Recycling, 145, 322-331. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.02.003
Marx, J., Schreiber, A., Zapp, P., & Walachowicz, F. (2018). Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of NdFeB Permanent Magnet Production from Different Rare Earth Deposits. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 6(5), 5858-5867. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b04165
Patel, K., Zhang, J., & Ren, S. (2018). Rare-earth-free high energy product manganese based magnetic materials. Nanoscale, 10(25), 11701-11718. doi:10.1039/C8NR01847B
Pillai, P. (2007). Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) in the extraction and processing of rare earths. In I. A. Agency (Ed.), Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM V) (pp. 197-221). Sevilla, España: International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna.
Rajive , G., & Douglas , R. (2018). Rare earths: A review of the landscape. MRS Energy & Sustainability, 5, 1-16. doi:10.1557/mre.2018.7
Ricketts, N. J. (2019). Scandium Solvent Extraction. Data Mining, Light Metals 2019, 1395-1401. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05864-7_174
Schmid, M. (2019). Mitigating supply risks through involvement in rare earth projects: Japan's strategies and what the US can learn. Resources Policy, 63, 101457. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101457
Scirè, S., & Palmisano, L. (2020). Cerium and cerium oxide: A brief introduction. In S. Scirè, & L. Palmisano, Cerium Oxide (CeO2): Synthesis, Properties and Applications (pp. 1-12). doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-815661-2.00001-3
Singh, K., Harish, S., Kristy, A., Shivani, V., J., A., Navaneethan, M., & Shimomura, M. (2018). Erbium doped TiO2 interconnected mesoporous spheres as an efficient visible light catalyst for photocatalytic applications. Applied Surface Science, 449, 755-763. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.01.279
Suwanmanee, U., & Ratthanapra, D. (2019). Life Cycle Assessment of Separation Methods of Cerium Oxide from Monazite Ore . The Italian Association of Chemical Engineering, 74, 907-912. doi: 10.3303/CET1974152
Swain, N., & Mishra, S. (2019). A review on the recovery and separation of rare earths and transition metals from secondary resources. Journal of Cleaner Production, 220, 884-898. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.02.094
Takaya, Y., Yasukawa, K., Kawasaki, T., Fujinaga, K., Ohta, J., Usui, Y., . . . Chang, Q. (2018). The tremendous potential of deep-sea mud as a source of rare-earth elements. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 1-8. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-23948-5
Takaya, Y., Yasukawa, K., Kawasaki, T., Fujinaga, K., Ohta, J., Usui, Y., . . . Nozaki, T. (2018). The tremendous potential of deepsea mud as a source of rare-earth. Scientific Reports, 8(1). doi:10.1038/s41598-018-23948-5
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Derechos de autor 2022 A. D. Toache-Pérez, A. M. Bolarín-Miró, F. Sánchez-De Jesús, G. T. Lapidus-Lavine
Esta obra está bajo licencia internacional Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial-SinObrasDerivadas 4.0.
